AR25: 4 March 2003
Copyright 1976 by Christine Sharpe and Kevin Sharpe. All rights reserved.
Published in Mankind 10 (3) June
1976: 125-130.
A Prelimary Survey of Engraved Boulders in the Art Sanctuary of Koonalda
Cave, South Australia[1]
by
Christine E. Sharpe and Kevin
J. Sharpe
Introduction
Koonalda Cave
is in South Australia, fifty-four
miles from the Western Australian border and fourteen miles from the sea. It
contains evidence of late Pleistocene occupation in the form of artefact
assemblages, sculptural stelae and wall markings similar to the macaroni of
European caves. For background information, see Wright (1971).
The entrance to the cave is from the northwest side of a
huge sink-hole. One must descend some three hundred feet from this entrance to
reach the main chamber. At the back of this chamber is a steep ascent which
leads to an upper level, at the back of which are the wall markings. While
passing through the first part of the upper level we noticed that some of the
many large limestone boulders on the floor of the passage were engraved. The
first stone we noticed was smoothly rounded and buried deeply in the cave
floor. Its striking feature was some half-dozen deeply-engraved parallel lines.
They were at a slight angle to the vertical, at inch distances from each other,
and six to seven inches long. The strokes were vigorous and emphatic. They were
not made recently as they were filled with red dust; recent lines are quite
obviously so, as they are raw white in colour and lack the red dust coating. We
found many such engraved stones in a kind of trail formation leading off to the
side of the cave, to the right of the main path leading to the wall markings.
This trail ended in a deep trench between the cave floor and the wall. A huge
engraved stone stood in this trench: it was some eight feet wide and seven feet
high and was sparsely engraved with very fine lines. Further exploration
revealed other trails or paths of marked boulders, possible ceremonial areas,
charcoal, bones and torches.
This paper is a preliminary survey of these markings. There
is much more work to be done, including a thorough analysis and description of
the lines.
Are These Marks Human?
Some people will be
sceptical about the human origin of these engravings. The wall markings at the
back of the cave (described by Edwards and Maynard, 1967, 1969;
Gallus, 1968a, 1968b, in Wright, 1971; and Pretty, 1960)
were firstly dismissed as being the claw marks of bats (whose bones and
droppings abound in the Art Sanctuary) or owls, but they are now accepted as
being human. We see no reason why the wealth of engravings on the boulders of
the cave floor could not be part of the same tradition, especially considering
their similarity in technique and appearance to the incised lines which appear
with those made by fingers on the cave walls.
They are not solution tubes which some-times form part of
limestone formations. We saw these also in the cave and they are of an entirely
different character, and also disappear into the limestone surface. The boulder
engravings do not do this.
Following are four points which may help prove that the
boulders were not engraved by bats or owls. The examples given for each point
are not complete lists of all types.
Drawing
goes here
Figure 1. Drawing of a set of lines found in the area P1. Note especially the horizontal lines and the grid.
a. Horizontal
lines and grids appear. Examples of these can be found on each of the engraved
faces reproduced for this paper. Fig. 1
is an especially good example; this is from the area of engravings termed P1 at the 4
end of the path 3-4 (see Fig.2
for the positions of these names in the Art Sanctuary). Plate I shows a few grids (also from the area P1). Plate II show horizontal lines and a
grid at the central bottom area of the engraved section of the face (from area P2 around the
elephant head formation; see Fig. 2). Plate III and the drawing of
it, Fig. 3,
show lines changing directions in smooth curves starting (or finishing)
horizontally (from the cavern, area P3;
see Fig. 2). The
centre of Plate IV (rock 1s; see Fig. 2) shows some horizontal lines.
Drawing
goes here
Figure
2. Schematic diagram showing the paths, areas and principal engraved
boulders in the upper chamber of Koonalda Cave. Not to scale.
Drawing goes here
Figure
3. Interpretation of streams in Plate III at the entrance to the
cavern, area P3.
b. Often
vertical engravings follow the lower surface of a convex boulder to near its
base; see, for example, Plate I.
c. Engravings
appear on the underside of overhanging ledges; Plate IV shows examples of this.
d. They
are sometimes around and in very small holes (an inch in diameter). Although
this set of examples is not very good, such lines can be seen on Plate II.
A main concern we have in writing this paper is that because
scepticism exists as to the humanness of these engravings, they may be knocked
or walked upon by people approaching the wall engravings. There are so many of
them that it is almost impossible not to tread on some. Moreover, a foot
slipping can shave off engravings. Plate
II shows examples of this: two times rocks or possibly feet of previous
visitors have erased then invisible lines (because of the dust on them) at the
top of this face.
Paths
The paths are a convenient
way of cataloguing sets of engraved boulders. One can walk from an engraved
face of a boulder to another the engraved face usually facing the inside of
the pathway and thus move around the cave. One pathway so found namely path 1-2,
we used to go through the first part of the upper level to the wall markings
before we knew of the engraved boulders. Other similarly followed pathways lead
to areas containing significant amounts of engraving or impressive lines of
considerable depth.
Fig. 2
shows the paths in diagrammatic form. They are numbered by their beginning and
end points, and the groupings of engraved stones bear the number of the path on
which they are found, and also an alphabetical numeration.
a. Path
1-2. We have documented this pathway
more thoroughly than the others. It leads from the end of the climb up to the
upper chamber, 1, to a large
stone which stands about midway between this climb end and the wall markings
at the back of the chamber. We named this large stone the Directional Stele, 2. The path slants uphill until it reaches the
stele, then downhill the rest of the way to the wall markings. It is
interesting also because this elevated position makes it readily visible from
both the wall gallery and the entrance to the upper chamber. The path makes a
turn to the left at the Directional Stele. Moreover, the engraved stones
terminate at this point except for a few isolated examples. There is then
little art work evident until the wall gallery is reached. It is also necessary
to point out that smooth stones suitable for engraving also terminate at this
point.
The other stones on path 1-2 can be seen on Fig. 2. An interesting thing is that on one side of
group 1k, 11, and 1m
is a curved opening in the boulder floor of the cave. This opening contained a
number of vertebrae and was covered with a flat stone. A piece of charcoal was
also found here and some pieces of bone in the vicinity of lm.
b. Path
5-6.
this branches off path 1-2 and terminates at the right-hand-side wall
(when facing 2 from 1) (Fig.
2).
In the wall at this point is an ochre deposit and some engravings. Along this
path, in the area designated P4
on Fig. 2,
was found what we supposed to be a torch, thickly coated with dust. This piece
of root was six inches long, charred at one end and placed on a limestone
border. At the base of this boulder in a niche formed by three loose stones lay
another piece of wood, four inches long, also with a charred end.
c.
Path 3-4. This terminates in a large pit beside
the cave wall and called area P1 (Fig. 2). Standing in this pit is a large slab of
limestone (eight feet by seven by seven) engraved sparsely with a fine series of
lines. Low down in the wall behind this monument is a large ochre deposit
bearing finger scrapings. In a pocket on a slab was found a small group of
charcoal ends, possibly torch stubs, and at the foot of the slab numerous
pieces of charcoal. Between paths 3-4 and 5-6 stands a large
flat-topped boulder, the size and shape of a work bench. On this was a
suspected unfinished stone implement.
d.
Path 15-8. The first part of this path, at 15,
is more of an area (Fig. 2).
At this point along path 1-2, stones 15A
and 15B stand as gate-posts
leading off to a floor surrounded by what look like placed loose rocks. At the
far left of this floor, called floor 151,
is a niche formed by three stones and which contains wood. Near the stones and
which contains wood. Near the back of the floor, between the stones of its
boundary, is a small animal skull. Behind floor 151 are three other area, also scooped out and
surrounded by stones. Floor 151II
contains a tall stone on which stands a large vertebra, and other bones also
abound in these areas.
Near 8
on path 15-8 is an area designated P2, and which
contains an interesting engraved shape we call the elephant head formation.
Three feet from the wall at the end of path 15-8 is a deep chamber in the cave floor. Its
entrance is a tunnel, five feet wide and two feet deep. This chamber can hold
one person and on investigation was found to contain engravings and some
chalcedony nodules.
e. Path
9-10. On the left-hand side of path 1-2, path 9-10 meets the side wall at a deep closet-type
of cavern which opens into the limestone floor. Within it a number of stones
stand on end. At its entrance, one above the other, are two limestone slabs
with flat faces and with emphatic deep markings on their cavern-side. This area
is called P3 (Fig. 2).
Marks
There are an uncountable number of engravings on the
boulders of the upper chamber of the cave, and most of them form no
recognizable geometrical patterns. Therefore, to catalogue them stone by stone
according to geometrical categories would do little for the study of the lines.
In the short time we had in
the cave we concentrated on documenting path 1-2. The following then especially concentrates
on the lines found on those boulders. The best technique we have at present for
conveying our information is to discuss briefly the significantly engraved
rocks on 1-2, and the main ones in the other areas. Most
of the engraved boulders in the Art Sanctuary are not discussed, and what we
give we hope will serve as examples.
a. Path
1-2.
i.
General kinds of patterns found. In the deep crevice 1a there are engraved vertical waves, oblique
scratches and also a semicircle of four parallel lines. But in general the
engravings are in groups of fine parallel lines, most of them vertical.
Sometimes two groups of parallel lines will slant together at their lower ends,
forming what look like downward pointing arrows (for example, on 1b), but often there is just a tangle of fine
vertical lines (for example 1d).
ii.
Association of lines with crevices in the floor. In the
floor beside 1e is a very deep
hole only wide enough to accommodate ones hand. Directly above this on the
engraved side of 1e are two
emphatic vertical parallel lines; these are scored more deeply and are longer
than the other engravings on this face.
iii.
Association of lines with holes in the boulders. For
example, on one corner of 1e
are two deep interlocking holes. The area in and around these is profusely
engraved. Also on 1n the
greatest concentration of lines is around and pointing away from small holes.
iv.
Positioning of lines on the boulders. There are:
An emphasis of natural depressions in the
limestone (e.g. on 1f
and 1s);
Engravings on the sides and not on the tops of
the boulders in most cases (although when the rocks have a congealed layer of
dust on top it is not possible to tell if the tops are engraved or not);
An accentuation of projections; for example, on 1i around the top half of a projection, lines
point inwards towards the apex of the projection;
Engraving as a way of emphasizing features not
found on most other boulders; for example, a small groove about half way along
the engraved side of 1i is
overhung by a pierced flap, and both the flap and the inside of the groove are
heavily engraved;
Lines pointing to niches between two closely
positioned boulders (e.g. 1n
and 1o) or there is a
concentration of lines where two boulders may meet (e.g. 1s and 1r).
b.
Path 3-4.
The area P1 contains
a large number of very interesting engravings (Plate 1 shows some) including a superb example where two
lines emerge from a natural hole and run some seven inches down the stone;
there are no other lines around this pair of lines on that particular surface.
Back along 3-4, towards path 1-2, is a very sculptural stone, the most
striking aspect of which is a series of interconnected, smoothed tunnels. The
openings of these tunnels are heavily accentuated with engraving.
c.
Path 15-8.
We mentioned the elephant head formation before on this pathway. It
comprises one larger boulder with a trunk-like projection arching off it to the
ground. The area where the trunk meets the head is finely engraved; notable
are four clearly defined parallel lines, five inches long. The head area is a
very good example of the association of lines with holes. Some sixteen natural
indentations in the limestone are surrounded by carefully executed groups of
parallel lines and herring-bone patterns. Close to this is a three-foot-long
loose nodule of limestone. Again its form is very sculptural and rather like an
abstract female form; it also bears finely engraved lines.
d.
Path 9-10.
Both of the slabs at the entrance to the cavern in area P3 bear emphatic
vertical marks along their lengths, and each is about two feet long and ten
inches high. The engravings are of distinctly different characters on each. The
bottom stone has a fairly even distribution of lines of similar depth along its
length, with no outstanding groups forming a shape, or stream of broken lines
which could be followed. All of these lines are vertical, some are broken, and
they often converge to meet each other on the lower edge of the slab. Shorter
lines join these at intervals to create branching forms.
The upper
slab (see Plate III and Fig. 3) does contain a
striking group of lines which unite to form a definite shape. Five separate
streams of parallel lines can be tentatively identified and which can perhaps
represent a cumulative engraving by a number of people over a period of time,
marking and re-marking the boulder. This is indicated by the fact that each set
or stream or hand of lines is of a different engraving width, depth,
cross-section, etc., and that lines clearly pass over or under others.
Alternatively, they could just represent the stages of production of the figure
by one person at one time, but using different tools. The highest and perhaps
the first stream arches from the left. This stream is not clear and is very
fragmented in character. To the right of this in the centre of the parallel
lines, branching slightly at their base. To the right again is another group,
still in the same vertical orientation, but not clearly defined. Arching from
left to right are two broad sweeps of parallel lines overlapping these first
three streams. This figure has a very intentional character.
Dating
Three radiocarbon dates have
been given for this upper chamber. The first is for wood collected on the
surface, and dated at 18,200 300 B.P. (ANU-1205) (Gallus, pers. comm.). The others are for the
area near the wall engravings at the back of the chamber: 19,900
2,000
B.P. (V-92) for 3-6 inches below the surface,
and 21,200
700 B.P. (ANU-180) for 5-8 inches
below the surface (Gallus, in Wright, 1971:
128).
Conclusion
The evidence presented here
leads us to believe that the upper chamber of Koonalda
Cave, the Art Sanctuary, was an
important ceremonial area and that the marking of the limestone outcrops was an
important aspect of the activities carried on there. It seems that certain
outstanding limestone formations were singled out and engraved, perhaps to
accentuate their power or some striking aesthetic aspect. Some of these
formations had a definite influence on the way in which we moved around in the
cave and it is conceivable that previous inhabitants used them in this way
also. An example of this is the Directional Stele. This large stone is so
placed that from anywhere in the upper chamber, a light, held aloft, will
reflect on its surface, even though no other stone in the area is lit. When one
of us was working alone, deep in the wall gallery area, the presence of this
stone glowing some distance away in reflected light was strongly felt. We named
it the Directional Stele because we used it to find our way into and out of the
wall-marking area. One only needs to walk towards it, and when reached the rest
of the path is clear.
From the analysis of path 1-2
we can make some statement regarding the positioning of the line groupings.
They are most often on rock faces nearest and facing onto pathways, and these
pathways were the natural ones used for moving around the chamber. When two
engraved stones are near or on top of each other, engravings are concentrated
in those areas closest to where they touch. Often lines seem to accentuate
prominent parts of the rocks forms; for example, curves, protuberances, or
overhangs. The most striking placement is the connection lines have with holes.
Very often natural lines in the limestone are either covered in and around by a
thick mesh of lines, or one or two clearly stated lines are drawn emanating
from the hole. The longest, most emphatic lines are often directly above
crevices in the cave floor or at a point along a pathway where another pathway
intersects.
There appear to be three
distinct styles of engraving in the Art Sanctuary of Koonalda
Cave: the finger markings on the
walls made with some sharp tool (be it chalcedony or wood or whatever), and the
very delicate and finely executed engravings on the large limestone boulders on
the floor of the sanctuary.
Whereas the wall markings are
soft and should not be touched at all, the engraved boulders have reasonably
hard surfaces which can only be marked by hand or sharp instruments. Dust
completely obscures most of the engravings and they can only be seen if dust is
removed from around them. This dusting with a light brush does not affect the
engravings themselves, but if dust is removed from within the engravings their
sharpness and clarity is to some extent lost as the reddish dust in the lines
helps to define them.
Methodology for Further Analysis of the Lines
Since there seems to be an
intimate relationship between the form of the smooth limestone outcrops and the
positions of the engraved lines, a logical step towards a more complete
analysis should include a thorough diagrammatic analysis of the lines and the
way in which they relate specifically to the forms. An aid for this is
Alexander Marshacks method of identifying streams or hands of lines, and
we have used it to clarify photographs (for example, the slabs at the entrance
to the cavern, area P3;
see above) and see how the engravings are built up (Marshack, pers. comm., and 1974).
So what we want to do with the
lines is to analyse the way they are built up, to draw and photograph them, and
to describe them in relation to form. We are not saying that by using this
method we can work out precisely what the Koonalda artists were saying in their
work, but we are able to say how their work affects us, and by projection, what
they as artists are saying to us. This technique is widely used when analysing
works of art. For example, when looking at a painting by an unknown artist, we
may be able to comment on that artists emotional frame of mind by considering
how line and colour is used and how the pigment is applied. We may also be able
to comment on his or her maturity, proficiency in technique, or even values. In
this way art analysis has a definite part to play in the archaeology of Koonalda
Cave.
We think archaeology can make
use of other disciplines. Archaeology has been concerned with discovering how
early people went about the practicalities of life: how they hunted, what they
ate, the tools they used, etc. It has found works of art and ceremonial
objects, but cannot utilize its scientific approach to say much about the
feeling and aesthetic responses of those early people. If the Koonalda
engravings are indeed art, then surely we should turn to the subject art
itself which has much to say about non-representational works,
Acknowledgements
We are indebted to Dr. I.
McCall, Christines advisor in anthropology at Boston University; to Dr.
Alexander Gallus for his trust and encouragement, and for inviting us on his
expedition; to Professor Hallam Movius Jr. for his support;
and to Dr. Alexander Marshack for sharing his ideas and expressing his
interest.
Bibliography
Edwards, R. and Maynard, L. 1967. Prehistoric art in Koonalda
Cave. Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Australasia (Sth.
Aust. Branch), 68, 11-17.
__________, 1969. Prehistoric art in Koonalda
Cave (Australia).
Boll. De Centro Camuno di Studi Prehist.,4,
117-30.
Gallus, A. 1968a. Parietal art in Koonalda
Cave, Nullarbor
Plain, South Australia. Helectite,
6(3), 43-9.
__________, 1968b. Archaeological excavations at
Koonalda, Nullarbor Plain, 1957-1967, J. Antrop. Soc. Sth. Aust., 6(7), 4-8.
Marshack, A. 1974. The meander as a system: the analysis
and recognition of iconographic units in Upper Palaeolithic
compositions. Paper presented to the Biennial Conference, A.I.A.S., Canberra.
(To be published by the A.I.A.S.)
Pretty, G.
L. 1960. The CEG(SA)
Nullarbor expedition 1959/60, archaeological notes. Syd. Univ. Spel.
Soc. J., 6, 2-7.
Wright, R.V.S. (ed.) 1971. Archaeology of the Gallus Site, Koonalda
Cave. Canberra,
A.I.A.S.
Note