Science and Religion: From Warfare Over Sociobiology to a Working
Kevin J. Sharpe
Science continues to confront religion. Unfortunately, religion continues to
respond defensively. A new discipline of science and religion is emerging, one
of whose aims is to explore constructively the interaction between the two
areas. One of its current energetic topics is sociobiology's relation to
religion. Sociobiology could undermine religion's and ethics' claims to truth;
thus it threatens theology. Theologians frequently respond by separating its
area of application from religion's, thus setting up a dualism. There are
reasons, however, for questioning this response. Theology could embrace
sociobiology's findings and work with it toward a better society. Current
Contents 23 (
During the Gulf War a fellow faculty member at the Union Institute, Audrey
Faulkner, wore a black band of mourning. She grieved from the war's
cleanliness. She mourned for us denied its full pain. Our high-tech weapons
produced a conflict virtually bloodless for us. It did not allow us to suffer
as a people ought when their armed forces are fighting. Only the Iraqis and Kuwaitis
felt its full impact. Our loss was heightened by prohibitions against the
media's showing our soldiers' pain and misery.
Suffering and death often have to do with religion.
In this war science and technology cut our contact with a deep religious side of
our being.
Other science-religion issues emerged from the war.
Westerners naively think Muslim culture, especially its fundamentalist wing,
does not support technological and scientific knowledge. In reality Islam is
supportive, but on its own terms. It objects to science as Western scientists
define it. It wrestles with how much one has to become Western to embrace
technology and science (1).
There are many current interactions between science
and religion besides those raised by the
Many of the interactions between science and
religion evidence a warfare between the two. Yet scholars in the area now shy
from battle imagery because they feel the two deal with distinct subjects (4).
A more honest reading of history may show the two were at war and that religion
lost. Religion then redefined itself so science could not touch it. But
skirmishes still occur. They center on knowledge and belief (such as the
Islamic example), and on the use of technology and science (as in the clean
Gulf War).
A marked departure from the warfare image are the
recently growing efforts at constructive relations, sometimes called the new
interactionalism (5). Several theologians develop theologies explicitly
dependent on scientific findings or models (for instance,
The model for the relation between science and
religion is, not surprisingly, another subject for exploration. Not only do
scholars pursue this historically - what has been the relation. They also seek
a relation toward which to work. Some suggest complementarity (for instance,
Sociobiology is a science whose relation to
religion is controversial. It is an ideal subject for illustrating what is
going on in the emerging science and religion discipline. There are several
reasons for this. First, the warfare image applies to its interaction with
religion. Second, religion reacts defensively to it. There also emerge chances
of the two working together constructively. And fourth, it relates to the
continuing debate over evolution.
Sociobiology
Human sociobiology is a new field that takes evolutionary theory beyond the
biological into the social. It stirs controversy by seeking to explain religion
and ethics and to show there is a biological basis for morality. To describe
the controversy I will first introduce sociobiology and then look at positions
which deny it can challenge theology.
Built into the human mind are various patterns or
rules by which it works. Sociobiologists call them epigenetic rules. They
process information which comes into the mind from the outside as well as from
internal emotions. There are two types of these patterns. Primary epigenetic
rules process raw emotional and sense data. Secondary epigenetic rules assemble
inner mental processes. These include conscious and deliberate decision making
and the placing of values. Epigenetic rules guide people into thoughts and
actions that insure human survival (23-32). Genes encode them because they have
proved so worthwhile in the struggles of our human and prehuman ancestors.
While epigenetic rules are important to sociobiology,
they are speculative. More evidence for their reality and functioning appears
necessary (33, 27, 34, 35). For the sake of this discussion, however, I assume
their existence.
A second aspect of sociobiology has to do with
reproductive success. From an evolutionary point of view, people are successful
when they pass their genes to the next generation. One way to achieve this is
through cooperative behavior called biological "altruism".
"Altruistic" behavior enhances genetic success at risk or cost to oneself.
For example, parents who promote their children's future success by providing
an expensive college education are behaving "altruistically". People
also practice reciprocal "altruism". This happens when they do
something for others and their reward is that someone sometime may help them. I
stop at a red traffic signal even though it slows me down, because elsewhere
others stop when they have red and I have green.
Further, humans have altruistic feelings that make
them behave "altruistically". These feelings come through epigenetic
rules and oppose selfish inclinations which also exist for biological reasons.
To make humans behave "altruistically", genes guide not only feelings
but also moral reasoning. The rules give morality the feeling of objective truth.
They can thus enforce "altruism"; humans feel pressure to behave as
biology desires.
The above discussion of biological
"altruism" and sociobiology shows they touch the way religious
believers view altruism. But this assumes the ideas of sociobiology can and
should interact at face value with those of theology. Several theologians think
otherwise.
Theological Rejections of Sociobiology
An often-heard criticism of sociobiology is that it justifies existing
injustices. For instance, segregationists say sociobiology supports the belief
that Blacks are intellectually inferior to Whites. They believe that lower IQ
scores are the result of evolution following sociobiological mechanisms. We
cannot change this condition. Opponents of this view may then discard
sociobiology because they feel it supports racism (36, 37). But they need not
reject sociobiology - it does not in fact support the segregationists'
interpretation. Biological inclinations contain what both good and bad
behaviors, altruistic and evil. To discriminate between them and to emphasize
the more appropriate (perhaps the altruistic, the anti-injustice behaviors) is
the task of social reflection.
Most theological criticisms of sociobiology require
more extensive treatment than the above. Many turn out to be variations on a
few themes that continually occur in the science and religion dialogue.
The "is"/"ought" question often
rises in theological criticisms of sociobiology. Many critics claim that
"is" and "ought" are separate. They think scientific
investigation (in this case, sociobiology) can only say how humans have behaved
or can behave. That is the "is". It cannot say how humans should
behave (the "ought"). This is the task of ethicists. Those who work
on the "ought" assume humans decide their own actions. By distancing
themselves from their feelings and instincts, people can work out the motives
and reasons for what they do (38-40). This is the case presented by many who
separate "is" from "ought".
To say the "is" has no role in
determining the "ought" is to say genes have no control of culture.
Nor do they contribute to it. There is a fear of reducing culture (including
religion and morality) to being the result of biological mechanisms.
Peacocke is a theologian and biochemist at
The difference between the positions of Peacocke
and sociobiologists is the extent to which culture builds from biology. The
reductionism question becomes whether or not culture can break away from biology.
Theologians such as Peacocke say it does. Social behavior has genuinely
emergent features. Sociobiologists say it cannot. Edward Wilson of
There are several ways this fear of reductionism
appears.
Peacocke responds to sociobiology by saying it has
a restricted range and needs to be part of something else. This larger
framework is theistic. It grows from questions like "Why is there anything
at all? What kind of universe must it be if insentient matter can evolve
naturally into self-conscious, thinking persons? What is the meaning of
personal life in such a cosmos?" (7).
Several features of the larger framework stand out.
Biology may ground spiritual and mental aspirations. But, Peacocke adds, it
does not ground what they aspire to. That exists in the larger framework.
Reason and reflection also have to do with the larger framework and not the
biological. Reason, Peacocke says, provides non-biological support for ethics.
This is especially true in developed societies (7).
Discussion on survival, Peacocke believes, also
belongs to the larger framework (41-43). Sociobiology says what needs doing if
humans are to survive. Peacocke reacts: "Survival for what?" (44,
45). Is survival the most urgent value? There are higher order questions which
he thinks need answers before looking to sociobiology. A religious example is
the belief that the chief end of humanity is to glorify God. God's values for
humans may not rule out our extinction. Similarly, Thomas King from
Peacocke raises another issue (7). He disagrees
with Wilson and the
Langdon Gilkey thinks sociobiologists are blind to
the source of their trust in science's objectivity and of their moral position.
These transcend selfishness. But, according to the
Gilkey's point is similar to saying morality has
precedence over what sociobiology might say. And the basis of morality is the
reality of God and revelation (50). This is how Gilkey knows that studying
sociobiology depends on the transcendent.
One can question the details of Gilkey's case. But
perhaps more important is that Gilkey assumes God exists before he starts his
review. Second to this is sociobiology and other human efforts and findings.
The question then becomes why one should follow Gilkey. Should one trust the
scientific method as the judge of truth? Or should one trust some other source,
for instance Christian tradition? Human genes, Gilkey thinks, do not tether
what he knows from Christianity.
The above objections to sociobiology say genes do
not hold culture on a leash. The tethering question underlies most theologians'
reactions to sociobiology. It is especially behind their strong negative
responses. Their replies set up a dualism: theology deals with a world separate
from science's. This belief is common among theologians when they try to defend
their turf against science.
Deflecting the Dualism
I turn now to responding briefly to the belief that genes do not tether
culture, including religion and morality.
1. There are several ways in which sociobiology's
conclusions may already have support in religion.
In approaching the "is"/"ought"
question, the theologian might start with the following. God has brought
humanity along the evolutionary path. The "is" must therefore say
something about God's intentions for the human species. Filling out the
"ought" from a theological point of view, therefore, will draw
extensively on the "is". This is God's way of working (36, 42, 43,
51, 52).
Another example is that religion may support
species survival as the most important value. Karl Peters, a philosopher from
2. Sociobiology says culture is an instrument of
genetic survival. Meaning is not separate from the biological. Biology starts
and drives any cultural activity, directing it with epigenetic rules. To help
human survival even more, biology deceives people into thinking meaning comes
first. So Peacocke, King, Gilkey, and Bowker's genes promote their belief in a
dual world of meaning beyond biology's. They think and feel according to the
channels of their epigenetic rules.
Thus there is no complete release from genetic
survival pressures to make really free decisions. Ethicists follow the
"is" when debating what the "is" means. They also follow it
when discussing what the "ought" should be in different situations.
The "is" requires deciding the "ought". In part also the
"is" directs the "ought" through its epigenetic rules. The
rational bases chosen to justify an ethical code result from epigenetic rules
whose function is to lead to "altruistic" behavior.
Similarly, genes require that theology and similar
cultural activities work out and promote what humans might aspire to. Biology
through its epigenetic rules encourages humans to raise and answer the meaning
questions. It pressures them to do this so they will want to survive and
reproduce. In trying to make sure his gene line continues, Peacocke's biology
makes him ask "Survival for what?". And it makes him insist that the
truth of religious ideas comes before what sociobiology says.
Human biology makes us ask larger framework
questions. It also in part directs our answers.
3. There is only one way for an
"is"/"ought" separation to remain. There is also only one
option for the position that says theology has a strictly larger framework than
sociobiology's. Proponents have to insist on their stand against all other
explanations. They have to back separating science from religion and morality.
Such positions put the two areas into separate worlds or compartments or levels
with theology higher in the hierarchy. They believe they have thereby
sidestepped a challenge such as sociobiology's.
I have discussed in other publications why I
believe this strategy is dangerous and inadequate (15, 22, 54). Further, modern
society accepts the scientific method as the way to approach truth more than it
does traditional theology's. In the end what else is the judge of truth and the
assumptions people make?
Dualism does not stand. Genes tether and steer all
that humans do. Culture adds to what the genes bring. And it enforces what they
require. To insist there is no leash from genes to culture or religion is to
disagree on world views. Most moderns, I imagine, prefer one informed by
science rather one than dominated by a traditional religion.
Then theology can seek to build on and with
sociobiology rather than be afraid of it. This constructive dialogue has
started, with Hefner taking the initiative (6, 43, 55, 56).
From Warfare to a Working Alliance
The debate over reductionism of religion or culture by sociobiology is
confusing. Sociobiology looks reductionist. On the other hand, culture does
have a role in expressing and shaping biological behavior.
A significant problem in solving the reductionism
question is the image of a line drawn between biology and culture. Peacocke and
others may think all below some level is biological, all above is cultural.
There is, however, no clear-cut dividing line. For instance, the epigenetic
rules which people feel as cultural are biological mechanisms (27). It is not a
matter of culture above a certain point; rather, the genetic and the cultural
are inseparable.
The problem is being more precise over how much the
genes determine and how much culture constrains. Bowker calls this "a very
distant goal". Perhaps it is a hopeless goal because the relation between
cultural and genetic evolution is so complex (47). I more than agree. It is not
"a very distant goal"; it cannot exist.
Unknown to him, Peacocke already has a model on
which to base a solution to the biology/culture problem. It is his
epistemological stand over objectivism and subjectivism, what he calls
critical, qualified realism (57). This says scientific theories do reflect the
structure of reality. But one cannot isolate all sociological and psychological
factors from them. If Peacocke applies a similar approach to his problem with
sociobiology, he could say both genes and culture determine human behavior. He
could also say biology comes through culture, making the two inseparable. (In
fact, Peacocke's epistemological problem is a more general version of the
biology/culture one. To translate, note objectivism is sociobiology, and
subjectivism is culture.)
Gene-culture coevolution says much the same. Genes
affect the direction of cultural change. Natural selection, in part working
from culture, shifts the frequencies of these genes. This then opens new
channels for cultural evolution. And the circle goes around again (32, 58). Biology
and culture work together. They are inseparable.
This biology/culture model also applies to the
science/religion relation. The two have their place with their respective
functions. But, ideally, they are inseparable.
I emphasize ideally. The relation between religion
and science is still mostly one of warfare. Sometimes they battle. More common
this century are skirmishes against religion by backers of science. Ruse's and
Wilson's atheist attacks under the guise of sociobiology are examples (28-32, 40,
58). Theology shelters in its underground bunkers safe from the advance and
missiles of science. But to stay there is the end of theology's relevance to
the modern world. It is also to lose the vigor and wealth of the wisdom from
the past.
Alternatively, religion might engage and form a
partnership with science. Together they could build a culture which speaks to
the range of human needs, including the moral and religious (22, 58). This has
already started with sociobiology (6, 43, 55, 56, 59, 60).
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Copyright © 1991 by Kevin Sharpe.