AR
Copyright 2004 by Kevin Sharpe and Leslie Van Gelder. All rights reserved.
In Exploring the Mind of Ancient
Man: Festschrift to Robert G. Bednarik, ed. P. Chenna Reddy (New Delhi: Research
India Press, 2006).
A Method for Studying Finger Flutings
Kevin Sharpe
Graduate College, Union Institute and University, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
Harris Manchester College, Oxford University, UK
10 Shirelake Close, Oxford OX
kevin.sharpe@tui.edu
www.ksharpe.com
and
Leslie Van Gelder
Walden University, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
10 Shirelake Close, Oxford OX
lvangeld@waldenu.edu
ABSTRACT.
Historically, archaeologists have usually glossed over
parietal finger flutings, especially nonfigurative and nonsymbolic fluted
lines. This paper attempts to rectify this by saying something more concrete
about them than that they exist. In particular, it develops a nomenclature and
a taxonomy based on four genera to provide the fluting phenomenon with a
workable language and a descriptive structure from which to build analyses. The
paper also develops methodologies for such investigations, using experiments
and studies of physiognomy to help derive
KEY WORDS. Finger flutings, methodology, parietal art, prehistoric art, severines.
CONTENTS.
Experiments,
Studies, and Results
Buildup
at the End of a Fluting
Continuing
the Development of this Approach
Other
Methodological Techniques
Severines,
Figures, and Symbols
Related
Families of Parietal Markings
Finger
flutings (lines made with fingers drawn over a soft surface) occur in caves
through southern Australia, New Guinea, and southwestern Europe, and were
presumably made over a considerable time span including some or all of the
Upper Paleolithic (see Figure 1). They can appear figurative (for instance,
figures of mammoths in Rouffignac Cave, France), form patterns or motifs
(tectiforms in Rouffignac, for instance), or present no recognizable symbol,
picture, or pattern. Evidently, a significant proportion of prehistoric cave
art in France comprises nonfigurative fluted lines. Lorblanchet (
Figure 1. Finger flutings in Chamber A1, Rouffignac Cave, France.
Some investigators speculate about the meaning of these lines (Breuil et al. 1915; Leroi-Gourhan 1958; 1972), but most nowadays merely mention their occurrence, if anything. Thus, regarding Chauvet Cave, France, Chauvet and his colleagues do not mention them, whereas Clottes and his colleagues do, at least a little (compare Chauvet et al. 1996: Plates 29, 30, 32, 33 with Clottes 2003: Illustrations 84, 87, 88, 94). Aujoulat and Gly write about a wall covered with bear clawmarks in the Hillaire Chamber of the cave, on which some long, sinuous vertical lines have been engraved [actually, fluted], and which they interpretively consider a reminder of the clawmarks that probably inspired them (Aujoulat and Gly 2003: 91). Previous understandings of nonfigurative flutings perhaps appear wanting and so scholars increasingly say less and less about them, and what they do say often is very speculative. Write Clottes and Courtin:
barely a quarter of the finger tracings in some seventy
European Paleolithic painted caves has been the subject of surveys and precise
analyses. This clearly has to do with the indifferent aesthetic appeal of these
depictions, with the technical difficulty their study presents, and with the
uncertain and often insufficiently gratifying results that the researcher can
expect at the conclusion of the task (Clottes and Courtin
This paper focuses on flutings and
provides a language and methodology so that something more can be said about
them, including the nonfigurative examples, than pure speculation; it proposes
a systematic methodology for their study based on theory, experiment, and field
research. From this, it is hoped to gather sufficient
Background on Method
The method developed here derives from the internal analysis that Marshack introduces, where he especially studies incised lines (for instance, Marshack 1972). For instance, often under magnification, he examines the junctions and cross-sections of lines. Different cross-sections of incised lines may imply the use of a different tool, perhaps by different people, and perhaps at different times. Junctions may tell which lines overlie others and therefore the temporal sequence of their creation. Marshacks major contribution is to look at the lines themselves before jumping to questions of meaning.
Besides Marshack, internal analysis has been practiced by
Bednarik, dErrico, Lorblanchet, and others (for instance, Bednarik
Internal analysis emphasizes for flutings, as with
engravings, the gleaning of as much
Nomenclature
The following nomenclature provides a language to describe
and understand the fluting phenomenon, and thus remove some of the confusion
and silence associated with it (Sharpe and Lacombe
finger fluting (or, abbreviated, the word fluting) refers to a line drawn with a finger;
graphical
unit (or, abbreviated, the word unit) refers to flutings drawn with one sweep
of one hand or with one finger (Marshack
cluster labels an isolatable group of units that exhibit a unity, for instance because they overlay each other; a cluster of flutings may be isolated if it is possible to tell what flutings one person creates as a continuous unitary act (while standing in one place, for instance, or while squatting or moving sideways);
panel refers to a collection of clusters that appears geographically or otherwise distant from other clusters and on a surface of reasonably uniform orientation.
engraving refers to line markings made with a tool (within engravings, a difference exist between scratches (animal claw marks), incisions (lines that humans make with flint flakes or piece of other rock), scorings (lines made with a stick), and bone marks; and
severine refers to line markings that do not participate in the figurative part of a definitive figure or demonstrable symbol or sign (thus, the category line markings not only includes flutings and engraved lines, but, coextensively, also severines, figures, and symbols). (The term figure is taken to mean something a modern person would recognize as a figure; similarly for the terms pattern, symbol, sign, and picture.)
Methodological Taxonomy
A taxonomy also helps develop a language and a basic framework for studying the fluting phenomena. Not pictorially oriented or of appearance, but of manufacture, this taxonomy aims at methodological questions for the study of each form of fluting. The initial object is to learn about the fluters and how they fluted rather than to seek the meaning of the flutings. The suggested methodological taxonomy is:
Family: Finger flutings (versus
engravings, for instance).
Genus: Forms (four: Kirian, Evelynian, Rugolean, Mirian).
Species: Local variant (for example, Kirian goursolle in Rouffignac Cave, Kirian abadie in Gargas Cave).
Note the absence of such phrases as fluted severines, fluted figures, and fluted symbols. A fluted unit may be a figure, or symbol, or just a severine; the difference lies in differing intentions as modern people see them. Since recognizing such differences depends on the culture of the observer, the words are interpretative and the taxonomy avoids them.
The following sub-sections discuss the origin and use of the genus and species categories.
Genus
Two factors help to categorize flutings from what has been observed in caves, from experiments in fluting, and from methodological considerations that arise. They are, for each unit:
1. whether the fluter uses one or more than one finger of one hand to flute the unit; and
2. whether the fluter stands in one place, hips still, or moves his or her lower body during the fluting of the unit.
Stands still means no lower body movement; if this applies, the people who flute the walls or ceilings stand still, moving their upper bodies to mark with their fingers. The fluter may move between making units, but stands stationary for each unit. Moves means lower-body movement: if this applies, the people who flute the walls or ceilings not only sometimes walk or otherwise move their legs while fluting (thus the lines may extend beyond the arm range of a stationary fluter), but move their bodies from their hips to create the flutings by, for instance, bending, twisting, or shifting their weight.
These two factors produce four genera or forms of flutings:
Kirian flutings: the fluter stands still while fluting each unit, and each unit comprises only one line (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. Kirian
flutings (Kirian goursolle lines
in Chamber E of Rouffignac Cave).
Evelynian flutings: the fluter moves while fluting each unit, and each unit comprises only one line (see Figure 3).
Figure 3. Evelynian flutings (from Gargas Cave).
Rugolean flutings: the fluter stands still while fluting each unit, and each unit comprises more than one line (see Figures 4 and 5).
Figure 4. Rugolean flutings (from Chamber G, Rouffignac Cave).
Figure 5. Rugolean flutings (from Gargas Cave).
Mirian flutings: the fluter moves while fluting each unit, and each unit comprises more than one line (see Figure 6).
Figure 6. Mirian flutings (from Gargas Cave).
As will be seen below, the two variables that form the basis of this four-fold genera differentiation lead to different sets of methodological questions. For instance, more than one finger in a unit may lead to the possibility of determining the ages, genders, and the number of fluters, matters not amenable to these techniques when the units comprise only one finger. Lower body movement allows the possibility of drawing different shapes than when stationary, plus it can lead to the investigation of the paths the fluters take while fluting. The point of the taxonomy is methodological, finding out more about the makers, not necessarily the meaning.
Markings of different taxonomic genera and families can co-exist in the same panel or cluster, called multi-media panels or clusters. For instance:
In Gargas Cave: narrow fingers fluted Mirian
style along one side of a central crevice run over onto the other side of the
crevice to become Rugolean (Sharpe and Van Gelder In Prep. 1).
In Rouffignac Cave: some figures are drawn using
several means; for instance, Barrires lion in Chamber G is made with stick
scorings, stone incisions, and flinger flutings (see Figure 7) (Barrire 1982;
Sharpe, Lacombe, and Fawbert 2002).
Figure 7. Barrires lion figure, Chamber G,
Rouffignac Cave.
In Rouffignac Cave: the markings on the ceiling
around Kolk A in Chamber E include (a) fluted severines of the Kirian goursolle variant, plus
(interspersed and over top of each other) (b) scratched severines (some of
which have applied charcoal), and (c) the application of clay on some of the
flutings (see Figure 2) (Sharpe and Van Gelder To Appear; In Prep. 2). While
the taxonomy is designed to provide a method for studying the Kirian flutings,
other techniques may help in the study of the scratches and clay application,
and yet other techniques may help in understanding the cluster as a whole.
Species
Species are local
variants of the genera or forms. For instance:
Kirian goursolle lines in Chamber E of Rouffignac Cave (see Figure 8) (Sharpe and Van Gelder To Appear; In Prep. 2) and Kirian abadie lines in Gargas Cave (see Figure 9) (Sharpe and Van Gelder In Prep. 1). Flutings of both variants are made with one finger by a stationary fluter. K. goursolle lines are separated in sets of 7 or 14; K. abadie lines overlap, are very narrow, vertical, and in sets of large numbers.
Figure 8. Kirian goursolle lines in Chamber E, Rouffignac Cave.
Figure 9. Kirian abadie lines in Gargas Cave.
Units of Mirian desbordes lines in Chamber A1 of Rouffignac Cave (see Figure 10) are about 30 centimeters to 2 meters long, cover the ceiling, and sometimes occur as 2+2 units (see below for details) (Sharpe and Van Gelder To Appear; In Prep. 3); units of Mirian ferrer lines in the crevices in Gargas Cave (see Figure 11) can extend for 9 to 12 meters and are often in single units (Sharpe and Van Gelder In Prep. 1). Both are made by a moving fluter using more than one finger.
Figure 10. Mirian desbordes lines in Chamber A1, Rouffignac Cave.
Figure 11. Mirian ferrer lines in Gargas Cave.
The basis for distinguishing between species is to some extent methodological using significant differences between clusters, as with the above distinction between the two Kirian or the two Mirian species. Perhaps different methodological questions may always arise for different species, but this is not clear as yet. Whether this happens or not, the importance of recognizing different species is also to allow for potential differences from place to place and time period to time period between different cultural and individual styles of fluting.
Experiments, Studies, and Results
Foundationally, a nomenclature and a taxonomy provide some theoretical tools with which to start an in depth and systematic study of flutings. The practical side can also provide tools. Flutings were looked at in situ and replicated in the laboratory in different media. Lines were drawn to see what is possible and how they look, and how they compare with the flutings found in caves.
Media and Sites
The experiments replicated flutings in five media (though not in the moonmilk of caves):
1. Plaster
of Paris in aluminum trays (Sharpe, Lacombe, and Fawbert
2. Clay. This is better than plaster of Paris because it keeps the lines and maintains its softness, and is even sometimes the original medium. But it continues soft and therefore is easily damaged, and again it meets the problems of gravity, requiring that only a small horizontal area be used for fluting.
3. Finger paint applied to sheets of suitable paper taped together. Paint is more flexible than plaster of Paris and clay, and is easier to use over a wider area and on a vertical surface. Flutings can thus be replicated on an area similar in size and inclination to those in caves, allowing the extension of arms into positions the earlier fluters might have used. The flexibility of the finger paint also allows the use of the surface several times over to try for different effects. While finger paint helps the experimenting, it meets its limitations; the paper wrinkles, for instance, and impedes the application of paint.
4. A blank wall allows the stretching of arms in various directions and distances to see if flutings can be made.
5. A condensation covered wall is better than a blank wall as it can be seen where the fingers mark. But the same space cannot be remarked. Condensation also runs and evaporates.
Given this approach, field investigations were carried out
in Bara Bahau, Cougnac, Gargas, Goutran, Pech Merle, and Rouffignac caves,
France.
Markings Possible
Two factors control the range of possible flutings. Anatomical restrictions or limitations of hand and body restrict possible flutings and the positions from which they can be made. The second factor is the comfort of the line marker: how much discomfort the fluter is willing to endure to create flutings. This constricts the possible flutings and the positions from which they can be made. Also, it is assumed that no fingernails were used for the markings, that they were made with the soft pad of the finger. Then, given anatomical restrictions and comfort constrictions, what shapes do the investigations mentioned above suggest it is possible and impossible to flute? For a person using the right hand (mirror results apply for the left hand) and standing in front of and facing the wall, the following seems to prevail (Le Chain Graphique (Leroi Gourhan): what one person can do without moving).
When drawing the
fingers vertically downward, the fingertips press into the surface when
the hand is above the shoulders; a little below the shoulders, the fingernails
start to scrape the lines, unless the hand is slanted more vertically.
(Restriction (mention is made in each factor whether it is an anatomical and
physical restriction, or a comfort constriction).) It is
comfortable to reach over the head right of the body and flute vertically downward and to a short
distance past the shoulder but above the waist. These marks start approximately
When drawing the fingers vertically upward, the fingertips press into the surface when the hand is below the chest; above the chest, the fingernails scrape lines. (Restriction.) It is comfortable to flute vertically upward to about hip height. (Comfort.)
It is possible to flute horizontally, moving right, from the far left to about 15 centimeters right of the left shoulder. (Restriction.) It is possible to flute horizontally, moving left, from the far right to the left shoulder. (Restriction.) It is more comfortable to flute horizontally from right to left than from left to right. (Comfort.)
It is more comfortable at a corner
of a curved line to twist the hand with the arm outstretched than to twist
the wrist if the medium surface is close (less than
The form of the hand lends itself to curves, circles, and intricate pictures when only one or two fingers are used (see Figure 12). The index finger, or the index and middle fingers give more flexibility to the lines made; curves are easier to make and can be quite sharp, making drawings of animals or deigns easier. The fewer the number of fingers used, the greater the control and maneuverability, and the more complex the fluted cluster might be. Greatest dexterity is achieved by fluting with only one finger. (Restriction.)
Figure 12. A fluted circle in Chamber E, Rouffignac Cave.
When drawing curves with three or four fingers, the lower place of the little and ring fingers can result in overlapping and overlays or obliteration of their marks. The marks made by the other fingers may also overlap each other. (For undulations, it is physically easier not to twist the fingers at the corners, which also causes overlap if the surface is close (30 centimeters) to the body. It is easier to twist the hand if the arm is outstretched.) Four-fingered curves and undulations may be made with two fingers of each hand held touching each other (called 2+2 flutings) to remove the overlap that can occur with the use of four fingers of one hand (see Figure 13). (Restriction.)
Figure 13. Parallel flutings made with more than one hand. Rouffignac Cave.
Anatomically, it is
only possible to flute a one-movement circle overhead (as opposed to a
circle fluted with two or more sweeps of the hand). When fluting a one-movement
circle overhead, the torso, legs, and perhaps the feet need to twist to bring
the fingers around the
When fluting with an outstretched arm, the unit tends to arc with the arm as the radius (see Figure 14). (Restriction.)
Figure 14. Fluting with an outstretched arm produces arcs. Chamber G, Rouffignac Cave.
In general:
It is uncomfortable to place the hand directly in front of the body, finger pads on the wall. (Comfort.)
It is comfortable to flute in any direction toward
and in front of the body, and it
is more comfortable to flute at
It is uncomfortable to flute left of the center of the body. It is more comfortable to flute above the head to shoulder level to the left of the body than below the shoulder. Swiveling the hand to the left can make it more comfortable. (Comfort.)
It is more comfortable and practical to flute at
a distance of between
It is more comfortable to flute with the three middle fingers than with them plus either or both the thumb and little finger. (The distance from the wall is an important factor.) It is more comfortable to flute with the index or middle finger than with the third finger, the thumb, or little finger. (Comfort.)
It is more comfortable to flute on wetter
surfaces with some distance (greater than
Fluting can continue below waist height by bending the knees into a squatting or kneeling position. However, it is more comfortable to flute by moving up from the floor with the hand inverted than to move the hand downwards. The flutings made when squatting or kneeling down tend to sweep toward the body. (Comfort.)
With the body turned at right angles to the wall, it is more comfortable to flute with the hand further from the wall than with the hand nearer the wall. (Note that it is possible to face different directions to create different parts of a panel.) (Comfort.)
If the comfort of the fluters determines where they mark the wall, the set of flutings made by an individual standing upright and without moving his or her feet would encompass a